Many of the world’s most important systems, such as the atmosphere, turbulent fluids, and even the motion of planets, behave unpredictably due to chaos and noise. Scientists often study these systems through their “invariant” measures, long-term statistical behaviors, rather than individual paths. While useful, these measures have a fundamental limitation: completely different systems can share the same statistics, making it impossible to identify the underlying dynamics.
This article was originally published on this website.
